Liberalism Dictionary

Liberalism Dictionary 

These concepts are crucial to know when it comes to writing exam responses 

Altruism - concerns for the interests and welfare of others, based either upon enlightened self-interest or a belief in a common humanity
Atomism - a belief that society is made up of a collection of self-interested and largely self-sufficient individuals or atoms, rather than social groups

Classical liberalism - a tradition within liberalism that seeks to maximise the realm of unconstrained individual
Civil liberty - the private sphere of existence, belonging to the citizen and not the state - freedom from government
Civil society - a realm of autonomous associations and groups, formed by private citizens and enjoying independence from the government - civil society includes businesses, clubs, families etc.
Democracy - rule by the people, implies that both popular participation and government work in the interest of the public, and can be seen in wide varieties e.g. the UK and China both claim to be democracies
Devolution - a transfer of power from central government to subordinate regional bodies, without leading to shared sovereignty
Equality - the principle that human beings are of identical worth or are entitled to be treated in the same way - equality can be widely differing in applications 

Freedom - the ability to act or think as one wishes, a capacity that can be associated with the individual, a social or group nation 

• Negative freedom - the absence of external restrictions/constraints on the individual, allowing freedom of choice
• Positive freedom - "self-mastery" or self-realisation, the achievement of autonomy and the development of human characteristics 

Feudalism - a system of agrarian based on production that is characterised by fixed social hierarchies and a rigid pattern of obligations
Government - the machinery through which collective decisions are made on behalf of the state. Usually compromising a legislature, executive and judiciary
Human rights - to which people are entitled to by virtue of being a human being, they are universal and fundamental rights
Justice - a moral standard of fairness and impartiality, social justice is the notion of a fair or justifiable distribution of wealth and rewards in society
Keynesianism - a theory by J.M Keynes or policy of economic management, associated with regulating aggregate demand to achieve full employment
Laissez-faire - the doctrine that economic activity should be entirely free from government interference, an extreme belief in the free market.
Law - established and public rules of social conduct, backed up bu the machinery of the state - the police, courts and prisons etc.
Majoritarianism - a belief in majority rule - it implies either that the majority dominates the minority or that the minority should defer to the judgement of the majority
Market fundamentalism - an absolute faith in the market which reflects the belief that the market mechanism offers solutions to all economic and social problems
Mercantilism - a school of economic thought that emphasises the state's role in managing international trade and delivering prosperity
Meritocracy - literally rule with those with merit, that being intelligence plus effort, a society which social position is determined exclusively by ability and hard work
Natural rights - God-given rights that are fundamental to human beings and therefore are inalienable

Paternalism - authority exercised from above for guidance and support of those below, modeled on relationships between children and fathers
Pluralism - a belief in diversity or choice or the theory that political power is or should be widely and evenly dispersed
Social contract - a hypothetical agreement among individuals through which they form a state in order to escape from the disorder and chaos of the "state of nature"
State - an association that established sovereign power within a defined territorial area, usually possessing a monopoly of coercive power
State of nature - an ore-political society characterised by unrestrained freedom and the absence of established authority
Tolerance - forbearance, a willingness to accept views or actions in which one is in disagreement
Utilitarianism - A moral and political philosophy that evaluates "goodness" in terms of its utility and pleasure and pain - seeks to achieve "the greatest good for the greatest number"
Utility - use value, in economics it describes the satisfaction that is gained from the consumption of material goods and services
Welfare state - a state that takes primary responsibility for the social welfare of its citizens, discharged through a range of social-security, health, education and other services. 

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Why Does David Cameron want Scotland to stay in Union with Britain so badly? CASE STUDY

SCOTTISH INDEPENDENCE REFERENDUM - WHAT'S THAT GOT TO DO WITH IDEOLOGY?

The Prime Minister, David Cameron, commented that the Scottish independence would be a "painful divorce" from Britain if the Scottish nation vote yes on this coming Thursday. Cameron gave obvious reasons for this (seen here http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-29212102):

• Currency change 
• Splitting of armed forces
• Pension funds ruined - with some cost
• New international boarders - no longer easily cost
• No automatic support from UK embassy
• Interest rates not set by stability of Bank of England 
• Scottish tax payers bearing the cost of a banking meltdown
• No more UK welfare system and NHS 

LETS BREAK THIS DOWN - IDEOLOGICALLY STYLE!

How does Cameron's speech relate the Conservatism?

1. Tradition - Conservatism is closely linked to the desire of public order, desire to keep traditional institutions (the monarchy, the Church, the Armed forces etc). This relates back to Burke - "no generation should ever be so rash as to consider itself superior to its predecessors." The fact that values and institutions have survived is a testament to their quality - hence, the pound and Scotland should stay with Britain. Traditions provide continuity and stability as they prevent social conflict and link past and present, preventing violent transformations. For some, the idea of an Independent Scotland is only a pipe dream as it can never actually happen - a more pragmatic response would be Westminster giving the Scottish Assembly more powers. 
2. Organic society - this was mainly a reaction to the rise of liberal individualism which was prompted by Utilitarians and classical liberals. Conservatives bit back by stating that society is more than merely a collection of free individuals, but a single entity like a living organism. For the Conservatives in the UK, losing Scotland would be losing a part of its organic society - Scotland is naturally apart of the UK and thus, without it, is no the same. 
3. Property - Cameron's speech highlights the danger to Scottish people's money, morgatages and pensions if there was an independent Scotland. Conservatives believe in owning property or shares in businesses would give people a "stake" in society and thus promotes their sense of responsibility. If Scottish banks are no longer protected by Westminster, this could mean that Scottish people are in danger of losing their savings, taking away their stake - which also relates to Scottish business and how the Bank of England will no longer set the interest rates in Scotland, affecting Scottish wages. 

1. Currency change - keeping the pound has been a convergent factor for both the Conservatives and Labour party for many years. Cameron's main issue here is that Scotland have not chosen or given any clues in what they wish to do with their currency if it is a yes to independence. This shows the importance of pragmatism - the pound has worked for many reasons, so there is no reason to change it. It is a traditional concept in which both Cameron and Osbourne have warned that if it is yes to independence, the pound shall not be given to the Scots. The Euro has seen hard times over the recent decade, with the PIGS and Ireland suffering and Germany and the UK bailing them out - is that what Scotland want too? 
2. Armed forces - everyone knows that every conservative loves their traditional institutions - its pretty obvious from the ideology's name! But seriously, the armed forces has been a traditional institution in the eyes of Conservatism since its birth - 
3. Welfare system and NHS - although this may seem a bit strange coming from a Conservative, Cameron's way of thinking does come from a wave of "Compassionate Conservativsm" which aims to fuse some sorts of social security and reliability into their values of a party. Cameron wants to move away from the days of Thatcher where privatisation and unnecessary taxation are used as warning cards against the public. The NHS and the welfare system is important to Cameron - or that maybe due to the influence of the Lib Dems in the Coalition or Cameron may be using it against the Scots as a scare tactic. In which ever way you view it, it comes down to the fact that the NHS has been an institution from the 1950's which all 3 political parties in the UK agreed to - now the NHS can be seen as a "traditional institution" to which the Conservatives want Scotland to be apart of too. 

Is Cameron being a bit "BURKEAN?"

I have been reading up on a lot of Burke recently and found that Cameron's desperation to stay in union with Scotland resembles the angst and shame that Edmund Burke found over the results of the French Revolution. In Burke's "Reflections on the Revolution in France," Burke comments that the revolution would descend into terror and dictatorship - also stating that the revolutionaries were destroying "time-tested" institutions without any assurance they would be replaced with better options ------ do you see the resemblance or am I crazy? We hear Cameron repeatedly stating that Scotland and Salmons has no idea what could happen to an independent Scotland without the pound because, as of yet, they have no other option of currency. Why should one test the stability of an already founded institution that works quite well?  

Burke also argued that:

"Society is indeed a contract... the ends of such a partnership cannot be obtained in many generations, it becomes a partnership not only between those who are living, but between those who are living; those who are dead, and those who are to be born... Changing the state as often as there are floating fancies... no one generation could link with other. Men would be little better than flies of a summer."

For Scotland to leave the union, from a Burkean perspective, would be to jeopardise the social contract of future generations - the separatists in Scotland have not grounded their ideas in other social contracts and thus have no reliability of a traditional institution that has stood the test of time. From this conservative philosophical view, it is easy to see why Cameron would argue against Scottish Independence.
Finally, Burke states that change in society should be undertaken when its clear that the existing order is untenable - the opinion polls of last week (8th September-14th September) show that 52% of people want to stay in union with the UK and the other 48% want to have an Independent Scotland - does that sound like a decided public who all want change?

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Liberalism - why is Meritocracy so Important?

The Importance of Meritocracy in Liberal Thinking 

Meritocracy is a core concept in Liberalism, so it may appear on 10 mark questions 

What is meritocracy?

RULE BY THE ABLE AND TALENTED, MERIT BEING VIEWED AS A COMBINATION OF TALENT AND HARD WORK. IT IS A CENTRAL THEME THROUGHOUT LIBERALISM AND IS IMPORTANT TO LIBERAL THINKING. 

• Links to liberal ideas on equality - liberals do believe that individuals are born equal in a sense that they are of equal moral worth and should enjoy formal equality, however they also stress that they should be rewarded according to their different levels of talent and willingness to work
• Links to social justice as it implies that social position and material rewards reflect the distribution of ability and effort in society at large 
• Links to equality of opportunity because in a meritocracy, each person is given what they are due
• Links to social mobility and flexible patterns of inequality as opposed to fixed and structural graduations in social positions and wealth seen in hierarchical system 

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VICE ARTICLE - "FASCISTS FOUGHT EACH OTHER IN ROTHERHAM ON SATURDAY" CASE STUDY

VICE SEPTEMBER 15TH 2014 - "FASCISTS FOUGHT EACH OTHER IN ROTHERHAM ON SATURDAY"

http://www.vice.com/en_uk/read/edl-rotherham-sex-abuse-scandal-simon-childs-jake-lewis-2014-837

This article illustrates the current and divisive struggle the UK is facing when it comes to pseudo-pressure groups/political parties and their influence of power and public opinions. The EDL marched on 13th September against the report made by Alexis Jay who stated that between the years of 1997 and 2013, 1400 children had been sexually abused by (mainly) men from a Pakistani heritage.
In this article, VICE successfully sum up how incising yet foolish it is to follow the EDL and the National Front, but it also highlights people's perceptions on political parties. A quote that stood out for me stated "I wouldn't like to see a UKIP council, put it that way" from a Labour party activist. I'll let you decide for yourself what this person was intending to say.
Overall, this case study is good to use alongside modern-day fascism in Britain, which is hard for students to do as it is not seen in a supposedly "democratic" country that prides itself on its pluralist system. Although the EDL are not a political party, they have a far-right ideological aim which is to spread the message of the horrors of "Islamaphication" or whatever. The EDL would be a good case study to mention when it comes to charisma and the need for a strong leader - many of the young in Britain (particularly in the North) feel that the EDL is a place for them as no one is listening to them - which connects with the fascist ideology found in the early 20th century.
HOWEVER it is important to remember that the EDL is not a political party, and when best it is always good to state Golden Dawn of Greece or the stability that far-right groups find in Italy and France.

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Socialism - Types of Socialism

Types of Socialism 

Primitive and Utopian Socialists 

Predates capitalism with Thomas Moore's "Utopia" in the 15th Century and his vision for a simple rural lifestyle with greater consideration of others.

• Gerard Winstanley (the Diggers) and the Levellers (17th Century) before they were destroyed by Cromwell believed in greater equality and the leveling of society
• Both ideas looking for equality no private property and no greed but were out of fashion with the contemporary beliefs of the day
• Followed by Utopian Socialism laid out by Charles Fourier, Robert Owen and William Morris
• Fourier created communism before Marx with his ideas on cooperation and his phalanxes, which were groups of society put together for the greatest good
• Morris felt that workers were just machines and ordered that mass production be stopped and the value of a product be according the amount of skilled work put in. 

Fabianism and Evolutionary Socialism 

Fabianism so called after Roman general Fabius and his theory of warfare, which was constructed around the theory of inevitability of gradualism

• Fabian Society ensured that Labour party has been a non-revolutionary party 
• Evolutionary socialists believed that Lenin was wrong and that capitalism was not going to collapse, therefore there needed to be an appreciation as to how the workers were going to be best represented in the democratic system
• Eduard Bernstein - called for political work in government economic and social improvements through Trade Unions and nationalisation of industry
• R.H Tawney believed in the importance of education if there was to be a fairer society, this was also combined with his strong religious beliefs

Social Democracy

• British Socialism has been as extreme as that found in Europe, usually attempted to work with businesses rather than against it
• Redistribution of wealth was the obvious area in which capitalism can be harnessed by the state for greater equality 
• However they shifted from just being the part for the workers. 1945-1979 Labour based its socialism around a number of key areas - equal rights and equality of opportunity but no attempt to stifle individuals and their efforts to create wealth; nationalisation - for the good of the people the state had an expectation to provide jobs; welfare state with compulsory contributions through wealth redistribution; trade unions to remain strong, as it was essential that the working man was represented. 

New Labour 

• Less state control, for example we saw devolution and the proposals for regional assemblies and mayors
• Trade Unions sidelined, this was controversial at the time as many felt Blair should have overturned Thatcher's anti Trade Unions legislation. However, this did not sit well with his donors and the new voters he gained in 1997
• Accepting inequality while still looking after those at the bottom. Similar in a way to Thatcher in terms of seeing inequality as a positive, however still believed in helping the least well off
• Taxation not increased - stealth taxes? 40% taxes band was retained. Social security aimed at those who really need it. No longer associated with a class struggle, as they had brought it in the middle classes in 1997
• Followed writings of Anthony Crossland who argued that nationalisation was not the best way to run the economy - "Future of Socialism" (1959) - capitalism had to be harnessed in order to spread wealth. For Crossland, socialism was about greater equality and social justice. Capitalism could be used to pursue these goals. 
• Ideas of Crossland was central to the creation of the Third Way 

The Third Way 

• Famous for saying that ideology was dead, claiming "what matters is what works." He wanted voters to think he was a practical man, free from dogma. Many on left argued he was swapping Labour for Thatcher's full embrace of the free-market
• Socialist in that it ha public sector investment with huge investment programs in building new schools and hospitals. Extra 1 billion on education, cutting class sizes, huge spending on hospital building program.
• Blair was also shared socialist values: 1997 minimum wages - clearly for the working to stop lowest paid getting exploited. EMA - allowing young people to carry on studying - HRA protects people being exploited. Rebuilding schools - provision, equality of opportunity 
• Conservative - Iraq War - liberal interventionism. Not raising 40% income tax band, encouraging private businesses to run schools; academies, private companies to have contacts with the NHS, tough on law and order and crime but also on causes of crime terrorist detention extended to 28 days 
• Communitarianism - Giddens: plans for regional assemblies defeated (through referendums)
• Equality of opportunity in order to promote social mobility mainly through broader access to education but inequality accepted with the state not expected to level the playing field. Targeted welfare - no cradle-grave mentality (Clinton - "a hand up, not a hand out"), equality of opportunity, not outcome. 
• Social charter and child poverty targeted, minimum wage etc - social justice through provision 
• Third Way - COMMUNITY - central concept
• Social justice - even before Blair, Labour changed its drive of "equality" to social justice as equality was hugely unpopular with the electorate. Helping the poor to help themselves e.g. illiterate people taught to read
• Made the Bank of England independent as a symbol of its commitment to low inflation. Did not raise income tax and honoured the previous government plans on public expenditure, party of business not workers.
• Obligation for the richest states to shoulder their responsibilities to the poorer states to develop a more inclusive world community. Liberal interventionism 
• Distanced himself from traditional trade unions - ties with private sector role but more importantly did not repeal any of Thatcher's TU legislation or attempted any renationalisation of industry 
• Autonomy at devolved levels through devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Devolution - not big, bossy government. 

Ed Miliband - Socialist?

Red Labour 

After his election victory in 2010 it was clear that Ed owed the Trade Unions. This allowed the Conservatives to claim that he would be "Red Ed" a throw back to the 1970s. This was compounded with his open criticism of New Labour's decision over Iraq, their dependency on the financial services sector and the continued disparities between the wealthiest and those at the bottom 

Blue Labour - brainchild of Lord Glasman 

Communities taking more responsibility for their own lives. Economically it was critical of New Labour and its obsession with the free market, but it is socially where it is controversial with its attempts to be conservative in defending traditional institutions and work ethic. There is also an attempt to deal with the issue of immigration, which has had a dramatic effect on Labour's traditional heartlands. However, just as Miliband was about to endorse this view he changed his mind, fearful of the consequences/backlash 

Purple Labour - from the "Purple Book - A Progressive Future for Labour"

More New Labour, it contained detailed chapters on education, welfare and the economy were covered along with their version compared with Blue Labour. The main issue concerns how to deal with the deficit, in order to regain economic credibility with the electorate. They are also critical of Blue Labour and its return to the old fashioned wide working class base yesteryear. 

Ed Miliband 

• Hard to pin down on policy at the moment apart from perhaps umbrella terms such as "one nationism"
• Definite policy includes a return to a 10% tax band and for this to be funded by a form of Mansion Tax. Perhaps a seeking to "woo" the Lib Dems?
• Attacked Cameron for his "cronyism" - capitalism cronyism - RBS bonus - Cameron refused to veto it 
• Previously called on a High Pay Commission to look at the disparity between those at the top and those at the bottom. Claimed that the coalition was not protecting NHS welfare - social justice - Labour would protect this budget but he has to be careful that his spending policies add up
• Supports the return of EMA - social justice/equality of opportunity. Supports a graduate tax - doesn't put people off as much. Fairer and enables greater social mobility. Attacks big business and the coalition's association with this 
• Didn't support the strikes by students/teachers and has recently said that Labour would not overturn the pay freeze for the public sector if they won the next election.
• Attempting to prove that they can govern without great amounts of money. 

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Socialism - Simple Core Values

Socialism - Core Values 

Socialism arose as a reaction against the social and economic development which caused the growth of capitalism in Europe

• Fourier and Owen ascribed to an "Utopian society" which was founded within experimental communities based on sharing and cooperation. 
• Marx and Engels developed a more complex theory - revolutionary overthrow of capitalism was inevitable. 
• Democratic socialists - a gradual movement (founded within the beliefs of Fabian Society) which created the growth of trade unions, working classes, political parties etc. 

Core Values 

Equality - in many respects, equality is the defining feature of the socialist ideology, as it clearly distinguishes the ideology from its rivals. 

• Egalitarianism - belief in social equality or equality of outcome 
• Social equality upholds fairness and justice, whereas equality of opportunity legitimises inequality and makes us more likely to identify with each other and work for the common benefit. 
• Equality of opportunity, for Tawney, is a "tadpole philosophy"
• "Need satisfaction" - a necessity - basic needs such as food, water etc. are fundamental and are the "stuff" of freedom"

"From each according to his ability, to each according to his need." Karl Marx

• Marx believed in absolute social equality brought about by the abolition of private property and collectivism of productive wealth. 
• Social democracy believes in relative social equality, achieved through redistribution of wealth through the welfare state. 

Collectivism - humans are social creatures, capable of overcoming social and economic problems by drawing on the power of the community rather than individualism 

Cooperation - a natural state, we are motivated by moral incentives not material ones. The motive is to work hard to contribute to the common good. 

Common Ownership - traced the ongoing competition and inequality to the institution of private property - the "capital"

• Unjust - wealth is produced by the collective effort of human labour and should be owned by the community, not private individuals 
• Can be seen as breeding acquisitiveness and this is morally corrupt. Encourages materialism and is divisive - factors conflict in society between employee and employer. 
• Marxists - aim to abolish private property,
• Social democrats - attracted to a state as an instrument through which wealth can be collectively owned and the economy rationally planned. This applied more to a mixed economy which is applied selectively in the West

Class conflict - radical socialists always see this as crucial as it is the vehicle by which real change can be enacted, not through democratic means as they are inevitably in favour of the middle classes. 

• Marx called it the "class consciousness" by achieving this the workers will be those people who will look to lead revolution 
• Evolutionary socialists would seek to alter capitalism pushing for economic and social equality, which would be achieved through democratic means but with the interests of the working class at their heart
• Social democrats modify capitalism with controls through state intervention on a huge scale - e.g. Atlee government through welfare but also through nationalism and the role of the state being to provide jobs for people. Class is less important the state is a neutral referee
• Modern socialists would claim that class is no longer important e.g. New Labour but their ideas on promoting equality and social justice remain 

Social Justice - Marxists believe that the distribution of wealth cannot occur under capitalism as it relies on incentives and inequalities. Moderate socialists believed it can work with capitalism e.g. minimum wage and higher taxation for the rich. 

• Rawls - although a liberal, provided a description of social justice for moderate socialists calling it "distributive justice"
• The establishment of a fair and just principle for the distribution of reward
• All socialists believe that completely free markets do not produce a just society. 

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